LEARNING THEORIES

LEARNING THEORIES

1. WHAT ARE THE LEARNING THEORIES?

Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retains knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and advocate a system of rewards and targets in education.

Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behaviour is too narrow, and study the learner rather than their environment—and in particular the complexities of human memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction. Trans-formative learning theory focuses on the often-necessary change required in a learner's preconceptions and world view. Geographical learning theory focuses on the ways that contexts and environments shape the learning process.

Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. The theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner, has also been proposed, but empirical research has found the theory to be unsupported by evidence.

Learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience (Chunk, 2012). Learning can also be looked at as a relative permanent change of behaviour as a result of experience.

Learning theories are theories whose main concern is to link research with education. In other words learning theories explain how learning and teaching processes should be and/or should take place. As teachers deal with teaching and of equal importance learning of students, the contribution of various learning theories to teacher development is with some detail given hereunder. Although theories differ in many ways, including their general assumptions and guiding principles, many rest on a common foundation. These theories differ in how they predict that learning occurs—in the processes of learning—and in what aspects of learning they stress. Thus, some theories are oriented more toward basic learning and others toward applied learning and, within that, in different content areas; some stress the role of development, others are strongly linked with instruction; and some emphasize motivation.

Overview of Learning Theories

Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three basic types of learning theory: behaviorist, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. This section provides a brief introduction to each type of learning theory. The theories are treated in four parts: a short historical introduction, a discussion of the view of knowledge presupposed by the theory, an account of how the theory treats learning and student motivation, and, finally, an overview of some of the instructional methods promoted by the theory is presented.

	Behaviorism	Cognitive Constructivism	Social Constructivism
View of knowledge	Knowledge is a repertoire of behavioral responses to environmental stimuli.	Knowledge systems of cognitive structures are actively constructed by learners based on pre-existing cognitive structures.	Knowledge is constructed within social contexts through interactions with a knowledge community.
View of learning	Passive absorption of a predefined body of knowledge by the learner. Promoted by repetition and positive reinforcement.	Active assimilation and accommodation of new information to existing cognitive structures. Discovery by learners is emphasized.	Integration of students into a knowledge community. Collaborative assimilation and accommodation of new information.
View of motivation	Extrinsic, involving positive and negative reinforcement.	Intrinsic; learners set their own goals and motivate themselves to learn.	Intrinsic and extrinsic. Learning goals and motives are determined both by learners and extrinsic rewards provided by the knowledge community.
Implications for Teaching	Correct behavioral responses are transmitted by the teacher and absorbed by the students.	The teacher facilitates learning by providing an environment that promotes discovery and assimilation/accommodation.	Collaborative learning is facilitated and guided by the teacher. Group work is encouraged.

2. EXAMINE GAGNE’S LEARNING THEORY WITH PARTICULAR FOCUS ON ITS IMPLICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE CURRICULUM

Introduction

Robert Gagne's theories and research have had a significant impact on practitioners in general, especially instructional designers. He has influenced teaching and curriculum development and used standard practices as a stimulus for the development of theory. This paper explores Gagne's influence on practice by examining the relationship between theory and practice, especially in relation to instructional design, and then discussing science curriculum development and transfer of learning. Gagne wanted to apply theory to practice, and was especially interested in applying theory to teaching and learning to make it more effective and efficient. This paper includes discussions of the literature on Gagne which covers the practical use of his cumulative learning theory, his notion of the learning hierarchy in educational curriculum, and the importance of learner outcomes when analyzing content of instructional design literature and practice. The influence of Gagne's theories on instructional design practice spans a gap from a reliance on behaviorism as a fundational theory to the eventual adoption of cognitivism as an underlying theory. Gagne's theories and research have been applied to a wide variety of content areas, age levels, and learning environments.

Robert Gagne's theories and research in instruction and learning have been discussed in other chapters, where their relationships to each other are explored in depth. Gagne's theories and research have had significant impact on practitioners in general and of instructional designers in specific, and this will be the focus of this paper. Given the length of his professional career, and the esteem with which his numerous publications are held, it is axiomatic that he has had an impact. Further examination reveals that he also has influenced teaching and science curriculum development through his research and theory. He also used standard practices as a stimulus for the development of theory. Throughout his career, Gagne was always cognizant of the gap between theory and practice, and addressed this gap by directing his investigations toward practical problems

Impact of Gagne's Theories on Science Curriculum Development Practice

An examination of curriculum and curriculum development logically begins with a concept definition. Gagne (1966) defines curriculum as, a sequence of content units arranged in such a way that the learning of each unit may be accomplished as a single act, provided the capabilities described by specified prior units (in the sequence) have already been mastered by the learner. (p. 22) this orientation is a logical extension of his cumulative learning theory and his notion of the learning hierarchy. Contrasting definitions illustrate the diversity of thinking in this area. For example, Bloom (1976) views curriculum as occurring in two forms visible and invisible. The former being the school subjects’ one is taught, and the latter being those lessons which teach one his or her place in the world. Gagne's concept is closer to the first view. Further contrasting definitions are offered by Bruner (1966)2, Eisner (1985)3, and Klein (American Society for Curriculum Development, 1993)4. Bruner and Klein provide views that are more traditional and closer to that of Gagne. Eisner. on the other hand, also recognizes the existence of both formal and informal curricula, similar to Bloom. While not all theorists agree on the definition of curriculum, Gagne's position has been used as the basis for a number of important efforts in schools and training.

School Program Design

The most pervasive example of an application of Gagne's theories and research to a large scale curriculum project is Science: A Process Approach (SAPA), which is part of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Commission on Science Education. These science curriculum materials were influential in schools and colleges during the 1960s and early 1970s and represent a significantly large scale curriculum effort utilizing Gagne's theories and research in the areas of problem solving and scientific inquiry. Gagne's view of a process approach to science is scientific inquiry and is based on students having a large knowledge base which they subsequently utilize to make and then test inductive inferences. The underlying foundation for the process approach is hierarchical, and presumes that learners have the prerequisite process skills as background.

Gagne (1965) maintained that the process approach is a middle ground between the "content approach" and the "creative approach" and "It substitutes the notion of having children learn generalizable process skills which are behavioral specific, but which carry the promise of broad transferability across many subject matters" (p. 4). It can also be said that SPAP and its orientation to teaching elementary science and scientific inquiry, although first published in the sixties, remained immensely influential in science texts and other commercially published science materials well into the 1980s. Andrew Ahlgren of AAAS, coauthor of Science for All Americans, provided further testimony to Gagne's influence on science curriculum, as well as his indirect influence on mathematics, and technology curriculum in specific (A. Ahlgren, October 3, 1994, personal communication). He stated that SAPA most certainly had tremendous influence on not only science, but also technology curriculum. Not all see Gagne's influence on science curriculum as positive.

Finiley (1983), for example, argues that Gagne's theories, as well as others of like mind, have propelled science curriculum in the wrong direction by advocating a commitment to inductive empiricism.5 He maintains that a presentation of papers by Gagne to AAAS ". . . has had a substantial influence on curriculum, instruction, and research in science education since that presentation" (p. 47). Finiley then selects Gagne, in view of all others writing about science process, as the most influential when he says: "Although many science educators have written about science processes, the view established by Gagne has been most influential" (p. 48). He continues his argument from a philosophical perspective indicating that Gagne, similar to his predecessors like Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Newton and Hume, embrace the positions of empiricism and induction. Finiley, although in fundamental disagreement with Gagne's approach to teaching science, substantiates the overreaching influence Gagne has had on the development of science through SAPA during the late 1960s and into the 1980s.

Hackett (1971) provides another example of the use of Gagne's theories on a large scale curriculum project in a public school setting. Although her work was primarily directed toward reading and communication skills curricula, she provides ample evidence of the application of Gagne's theories to social studies and mathematics as well. Hackett's experiments and curriculum projects focused on a performance-based approach which has many similarities to the outcome based education movement of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

There are also many examples of smaller scale curriculum efforts that apply Gagne's theory to curriculum development projects. Two examples are Gilbert's (1992) use of Gagne's hierarchies in his curriculum on questioning and taxonomies, and Lines's (1988) work with advanced economics. These programs provide evidence of more recent applications of Gagne's theories to curriculum. One can also examine as evidence Margaret E.Bell's (1982) article in which she makes a persuasive case for the application of Gagne's theories to designing programs. She argues that curriculum design and development has not been as systematic as the efforts of designing instruction. Bell recommends that Gagne's five capatilities can be applied to course instruction as well as program or curriculum development. John Flynn's (1992) also adapts Gagne's Events of Instruction to the very high profile and contemporary research area of coopezative learning.

School Lesson Design

When relating Gagne's theories to curriculum efforts that are directed toward individual lessons many of the examples utilize computer technology. Lesgold's (1987) effort where in goal knowledge was examined as to its significance to ". intelligent machine [and] human activity. " is an example of adapting Gagne's theories to curriculum and prerequisite skills in a novel way. Also in this category is the Smaldino and Thompson (1990) research relating the Events of Instruction to science education and computer technology. These authors propose designing science lessons focusing on the "Nine Events of Instruction" (p. 17). Jonassen (1988) has utilized many of Gagne's writings, theories and principles in the design of microcomputer courseware. He especially utilizes Gagnes Events of Instruction and his work in the area of hierarchies and prerequisite skills. Jonassen (1988) also utilizes Gagne's work with respect to learning outcomes in designing individual lessons to be delivered by computer courseware

3. WHAT IS THE RELEVANCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY OF LEARNING TO SCIENCE TEACHING?

The theory depicts to teachers on the role of organizing properly the process of teaching and learning, so as to make sure that processing of information goes smoothly

- The theory also shows that curriculum should be organized in such a way that the sequence of materials reflects the notion of repetition so that the content at one level is built on the basis of the previous one.

- The theory also stipulates the kind of knowledge and the way learners can inculcate them .These are procedural knowledge and declarative. Where it is known that procedural knowledge needs more emphasis and time than declarative knowledge.

THE RELEVANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF LEARNING AND PERSPECTIVES CONCERNING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SCIENCE

Active Learning: Learn by Doing

Active learning is a set of strategies that posits the responsibility for learning with the student.  Discovery learning, problem-based learning (22.3), experiential learning, and inquiry-based instruction (22.1) are examples of active learning. Discussion, debate (22.4), student questioning (5.1, 22.1, 23.1), think-pair-share (25.7), quick-writes (25.7), polling, role playing, cooperative learning (22.3, 22.5), group projects (13.1-8, 22.5), and student presentations (22.4) are a few of the many activities that are learner driven. It should be noted, however, that even lecture can be an active learning event if students processes and filter information as it is provided.  Cornell notes (3.1) and diagramming (16.2) are a couple of activities that can make lectures active learning events.

Teaching to multiple learning modalities

We can learn through any of our five senses, but the three most valuable are vision, hearing, and touch. Theorists and practitioners claim that learners have a preference for one learning style over another.  Visual learners learn best by watching, while auditory learners learn best by verbal instruction, and kinesthetic learners learn best by manipulation.  Because of the demands of the profession, teachers often resort to the instructional style that requires the least time and preparation, namely lecture and discussion.  Although these may be valuable approaches to teaching and learning, they fail to take advantage of other learning modalities, and disenfranchise students whose primary modality is visual or kinesthetic.  Throughout this book we emphasize the use of all three modalities in teaching and learning.

Teaching to multiple intelligence

Intelligence is a property of the mind that includes many related abilities such as the capacities to reason, plan, solve problems, comprehend language and ideas, learn new concepts, and think abstractly. Historically, psychometricians have measured intelligence with a single score (intelligence quotient, IQ) on a standardized test, finding that such scores are predictive of later intellectual achievement.  Howard Gardner and others assert that there are multiple intelligences, and that no single score can accurately reflect a person’s intelligence.  More importantly, the theory of multiple intelligences implies that people learn better through certain modalities than others, and that the science teacher should design curriculum to address as many modalities as possible.  Gardner identifies seven intelligences, which are listed below.  The numbers in parentheses indicate sections in this book that address each intelligence.

• Logical /Mathematical Intelligence is used when thinking conceptually (6.1-4, 7.1-7, 10.1-5, 13.9, 16.1-6, 18.1-3), computing (14.1-3, 15.1-7, 17.1-7, 20.1, 20.8), looking for patterns (1.1-4,16.4, 16.6, 17.5-7), and classifying (8.1-6, 19.1-5)
• Linguistic/Language Intelligence is used when learning by listening (21.1), verbalizing (1.1-4, 3.1-4, 11.2-4, 22.6), reading (2.1-4), translating (14.1-3), and discussing (8.6, 22.4).
• Naturalist Intelligence is used to question (5.1, 22.1, 23.1), observe (5.2-3, 22.2), investigate (23.2), and experiment (5.1-10, 23.3-4).
• Visual / Spatial Intelligence is used when learning with models (12.1-5), photographs (16.4, 16.6), videos (16.5), diagrams (8.1-6, 16.1-3, 20.2-7), maps (21.1-7) and charts (20.2-7).
• Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is used to process knowledge through bodily sensations (12.2), movements (12.2), physical activity (labs in companion volumes, Hands-on Chemistry and Hands-on Physics), and manipulation (22.2).
• Interpersonal Intelligence is used when learning through cooperative learning experiences (22.3, 22,5), group games (13.1-8), group lab work (22.5), and dialog (8.6, 23.4).
• Intrapersonal Intelligence is used when learning through self-dialog (7.1-3,11.1), studying (11.2-4) and self-assessment (7.4-7).
• Musical Intelligence is used when learning through rhythm, melody, and non-verbal sounds in the environment (24.8).

Metacognition: Teaching students to think about their thinking

John Flavel argues that learning is maximized when students learn to think about their thinking and consciously employ strategies to maximize their reasoning and problem solving capabilities.  A metacognitive thinker knows when and how he learns best, and employs strategies to overcome barriers to learning.  As students learn to regulate and monitor their thought processes and understanding, they learn to adapt to new learning challenges. Expert problem solvers first seek to develop an understanding of problems by thinking in terms of core concepts and major principles (6.1-4, 7.1-7, 11.1-4).  By contrast, novice problem solvers have not learned this metacognitive strategy, and are more likely to approach problems simply by trying to find the right formulas into which they can insert the right numbers. A major goal of education is to prepare students to be flexible for new problems and settings. The ability to transfer concepts from school to the work or home environment is a hallmark of a metacognitive thinker (6.4).

Developing higher order reasoning

Perhaps the most widely used classification of human thought is Bloom’s Taxonomy.  Benjamin Bloom and his team or researchers wrote extensively on the subject, particularly on the six basic levels of cognitive outcomes they identified – knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.  Bloom’s taxonomy (6.1) is hierarchical, with knowledge, comprehension and application as fundamental levels, and analysis, synthesis and evaluation as advanced (6.1-6.4). When educators refer to “higher level reasoning,” they are generally referring to analysis, synthesis and/or evaluation.  One of the major themes of this book is to develop higher order thinking skills through the teaching of science.

Constructivism: Helping students build their understanding of science

Constructivism is a major learning theory, and is particularly applicable to the teaching and learning of science. Piaget suggested that through accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.  Constructivism views learning as a process in which students actively construct or build new ideas and concepts based upon prior knowledge and new information.   The constructivist teacher is a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles and construct knowledge within a given framework or structure.  Throughout this book we emphasize the importance of helping students connect with prior knowledge and experiences as new information is presented, so they can dispense with their misconceptions (7.4-7) and build a correct understanding.  Seymour Papert, a student of Piaget, asserted that learning occurs particularly well when people are engaged in constructing a product.  Papert’s approach, known as constructionism, is facilitated by model building (12.5), robotics, video editing (16.5), and similar construction projects. 

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in science

An expert scientist is not necessarily an effective teacher.  An expert science teacher, however, knows the difficulties students face and the misconceptions they develop, and knows how to tap prior knowledge while presenting new ideas so students can build new, correct understandings.  Schulman refers to such expertise as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and says that excellent teachers have both expert content knowledge, and expert PCK.  In How People Learn, Bransford, Brown and Cocking state: “Expert teachers have a firm understanding of their respective disciplines, knowledge of the conceptual barriers that students face in learning about the discipline, and knowledge of effective strategies for working with students. Teachers' knowledge of their disciplines provides a cognitive roadmap to guide their assignments to students, to gauge student progress, and to support the questions students ask.”  Expert teachers are aware of common misconceptions and help students resolve them. This book is dedicated to improving science teacher pedagogical content knowledge.

CONCLUSION

Gagne's theories provide a great deal of valuable information to teachers. Applying Gagne's nine-step model is an excellent way to ensure an effective and systematic learning program as it gives structure to the lesson plans and a holistic view to the teaching. We need to keep in mind that the exact form of these events is not something that can be specified in general for all lessons, but rather must be decided for each learning objective.

Concluding from the examination of Gagne's influence on science curriculum it is clear that his work has been significant. Evidence of his influence can be found in the many applications of his theories and research to a wide variety of content areas, age levels and learning environments. Additionally, his theories have withstood the test of time having been applied to curriculum of various types over the course of 50 plus years. As mentioned earlier his influence on the curriculum of science has perhaps been most broad based, long lasting and nationally acclaimed.

A final comment on Gagne's future influence on curriculum must take into account the writers, researchers and theorists in curriculum publications. These documents would lead one to conclude that constructivism will be the dominant force in curriculum construction in the nineties. Earlier, when discussing curriculum, it was noted that Gagne was cited only once in the 1991-94 PSCD Handbook while constructivism and situated cognition were cited often. Furthermore, the ASCD publications have generous citations, methods, and corresponding activities that are very situated or constructivist in nature.

REFERENCES

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). Science for all Americana. A project 2061 report on literacy goals in science, mathematics, and technology. Washington, D.C.: Author.

American Association for the Advancement of Science Commission on Science Education. (1965). The psychological bases of science A process approach. Washington, D. C.: AAAS. American Society for Curriculum Development. (1993). Curriculum handbook: A resource for curriculum administrators from American Society for Curriculum Development. Alexandria, Virginia: The Educational and Technology Resource Center ASCD. Anglin, G. (1992). Reference citations in selected instructional design and technology. Educational Technoloey Research and Development, 4, 40-43

Aggarwal, J. C. (2004). Essentials of Educational Psychology: (6th Edition). Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C. and Sorensen, C (2010). Introduction to Research in Education. Belmont, CA, USA: Wadsworth.

Ashcraft, M.H. (1994). Human memory and cognition. New York: Harper Collins

Atherton, J. S., (2011). Learning and Teaching; Piaget's developmental theory retrieved 19th March 2012 from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm